This paper proposes a novel reading of Kant’s account of the dependence of possibility on God in the pre-Critical Beweisgrund. I argue that Kant has a theistic-potentialist conception of the way God grounds possibility, according to which God grounds possibility by his understanding and will. The reason is that Kant accepts what I call the Principle of Possible Existence: If something is possible, then it is possible that it exists. Furthermore, I explore the connection between causal powers and possibility, the (...) influence of Crusius on Kant, and the significance of the distinction between internal and external possibility. (shrink)

The article presents a theoretical study of the most common and actual theories and approaches to the problem of understanding the correlation between the usage of authority, power, and responsibility in management; their influence on making managerial decisions; and the management style overall. The study suggests that there are various different theories that attempt to explain the nature of leadership, management, and authority. -/- The study differentiates authority and power, with authority being an official right to manage (...) given by the organization hierarchical structure, and power being an unofficial right given by the ability to solve problems. Furthermore, both authority and power come with responsibility, which is a function of control. -/- The study also differentiates management by style. This also leads to differentiation by decision-making approaches: each management style corresponds with a different approach to decision-making. -/- All in all, this article shows how important it is to study the correlation between the usage of authority, power, and responsibility in management in order to be able to choose an appropriate management style to facilitate maximum efficiency and effectiveness of decisions made. (shrink)

The subconscious mind plays a pivotal role in shaping our thoughts, behaviors, and perceptions. This paper explores the fundamental structures of the mind—conscious, subconscious, and unconscious—and delves into the mechanisms by which the subconscious mind influences our identity, habits, and emotional well-being. The study highlights how deeply ingrained beliefs shape our reality and how neuroplasticity can be leveraged to rewire the subconscious for personal growth and higher consciousness. Furthermore, the paper examines how the subconscious mind affects bodily functions, including hormonal (...) regulation, and provides practical strategies to optimize subconscious programming for success and fulfillment. (shrink)

The history, critique and philosophy of the medical profession. What is real?

New biotechnologies have the potential to both dramatically improve human well-being and dramatically widen inequalities in well-being. This paper addresses a question that lies squarely on the fault line of these two claims: When as a matter of justice are societies obligated to include a new biotechnology in a national healthcare system? This question is approached from the standpoint of a twin aim theory of justice, in which social structures, including nation-states, have double-barreled theoretical objectives with regard to human well-being. (...) The first aim is to achieve a sufficient level of well-being in each of six core dimensions. In the special case of healthcare systems, this aim is focally but not exclusively attentive to achieving health sufficiency as one of the core dimensions. The second aim is to combat the emergence and persistence of densely woven patterns of systematic disadvantage that tend to undermine the achievement of a sufficient level of health and the other core elements of well-being of some persons and groups. Judgments about entitlements to health related resources, including new biotechnologies, are made in light of a threshold notion of health sufficiency. What is enough or sufficient health? The answer that is defended here is that sufficient health is enough health for a decent human life, understood as enough health to live a full life course without preventable, significant functional disability or decrement in health, or treatable pain or suffering. When a state must include a new biotechnology in its national healthcare system is also influenced by ancillary concerns about the connection between health and other core dimensions of well-being. What counts as a significant functional impairment or health decrement is thus explicated, in part, in relation to the theory’s sufficiency aim for the other essential dimensions of well-being, and thus for a decent life, overall. Those elements of health that play a critical role in the experience of sufficient reasoning, affiliation, security, respect and self determination are especially important; any loss of health function or capacity that threatens the individual’s prospects for sufficiency in these other dimensions, including the relational egalitiarian concerns they entail, constitutes a significant functional impairment. Within national borders, individuals are thus entitled to those health-related goods and services that are essential for a sufficiency of each of the dimensions of well-being; with regard to self determination and respect, what is sufficient by way of guaranteed access to specific goods and services is going to depend on the implications of such access for where an individual stands in relation to her co-nationals. The content of any entitlement to health-related goods and services is also necessarily dynamic. What can be done for health and the other core dimensions of well-being as a function of technological innovation and diffusion is in constant flux. The paper concludes by considering the implications of this analysis for the conditions under which states are obligated to include access in their healthcare systems to one biotechnology, deep brain stimulation. (shrink)

The task of understanding and perfecting international and diplomatic relations is becoming more crucial, given the frequency of political disputes and intimidation via public diplomacy. At the root of this trend is the dominance of political personalities in international relations, dictating the direction and progress of conflict control on the international scene. With increasing technological, biological, chemical and nuclear weaponry, ignorance of and any mistaken decision on the diplomatic terrain can come at a huge cost of war and anarchy. At (...) the heart of personalities and human relations, however, Nietzsche argues, is the will to power, that singular striving of each individual to assert his individuality and uniqueness, most times, to the detriment of collective interest. The objective of this paper is to expose what Nietzsche means by will to power in order to allow us have a handle on its influence on politics and social relations. The research question, therefore, addresses the relationship between will to power and the nature of political relationships in public diplomacy. The paper will achieve this by an expository and analytical method of research. The paper finds out that it is apposite that we gain control over the tendency for political persons to exploit public diplomacy to dastardly ends. This is to prevent a consequent descent into anarchy, one that Hobbes describes in grotesque clarity as the war of everyone against everyone, with life being “nasty, brutish and short.”. (shrink)

This paper examines how radical realism, a form of ideology critique grounded in epistemic rather than moral normativity, can illuminate the relationship between ideology and political power. The paper argues that radical realism can has both an evaluative and a diagnostic function. Drawing on reliabilist epistemology, the evaluative function shows how beliefs shaped by power differentials are often epistemically unwarranted, e.g. due to the influence of motivated reasoning and the suppression of critical scrutiny. The paper clarifies those (...) mechanisms in order to address some recent critiques of radical realism. The paper then builds on those clarifications to explore the how tracing the genealogy of legitimation stories can diagnose the distribution of power in society, even if ideology does not play a direct stabilising role. This diagnostic function creates a third position in the debate on ideology between culturalists and classical Marxists, and it can help reconciling aspects of structural and relational theories of power. (shrink)

This article examines Nietzsche’s enduring influence on Deleuze by showing how the interpretation advanced in Nietzsche and Philosophy informs Deleuze’s later work with Guattari. I analyse Deleuze’s reading of the will to power as a typology of forces and his interpretation of the Overman as a pinnacle of creative activity with an eye towards demonstrating that these are not merely Deleuzian creations but are also defensible interpretations of Nietzsche; and I suggest how these portions of Deleuze’s reading of (...) Nietzsche influence his concepts of desiring-production and nomadism, respectively. By analysing Deleuze’s relation to Nietzsche as a longue durée, we can better appreciate how Deleuze’s early reading of Nietzsche is carried forward in his later work. (shrink)

This article is the attempt of an historically oriented analysis focused on the role of Nigerian music as a cultural hub for the export of African cultural influences into the Black diaspora in the United States and its anticipation by the Free Jazz/Avantgarde-scene as well as the import of key-values related to the Black Power-movement to the African continent. The aim is to demonstrate the leading role and international impact of Nigeria's cultural industry among sub-saharan African nation states and (...) its specific ability to absorb and incorporate elements of Western culture. -/- After a short discussion of African influences on jazz music in general and the socio-political, cultural, and artistic context in which Free Jazz emerged, examples for the articulation of African consciousness among influencing key figures such as saxophonist John Coltrane or the Art Ensemble of Chicago are being presented. Furthermore, the personal and ideological links between the Avantgarde Jazz-scene and the Black Power-movement - especially the Black Panther Party - are made transparent. -/- In a second step the central influence of the Nigerian drum-pioneer Babatunde Olatunji on the Africanization of US-Jazz musicians, his personal and creative impact on John Coltrane, as well as the Black Power-movement is being highlighted. On the other hand, Coltrane, Free Jazz, and the Black Panther Party are being portrayed as a central creative and ideological turn in the career and work of Fela Kuti and towards political activism and his efforts to implement and apply the Africa-inspired Black Power -struggle of the US on the African continent in order to fight post-colonial forms of oppression. -/- . (shrink)

Is political equality viable given the unequal private property holdings characteristic of a capitalist economy? This book places the wealth-politics nexus at the centre of scholarly analysis. Traditional theories of democracy and property have often ignored the ways in which the rich attempt to convert their wealth into political power, operating on the implicit assumption that politics is isolated from economic forces. This book brings the moral and political links between wealth and power into clear focus. The chapters (...) are divided into three thematic sections. Part I analyses wealth and politics from the perspective of various political traditions, such as liberalism, republicanism, anarchism, and Marxism. Part II addresses the economic sphere, and looks at the political influence of corporations, philanthropists and commons-based organizations. Finally, Part III turns to the political sphere and looks at the role of political parties and constitutions, and phenomena such as corruption and lobbying. Wealth and Power: Philosophical Perspectives will be of interest to scholars and advanced students working in political philosophy, political science, economics, and law. (shrink)

Falsehood and Negative Behavior as Evil Influences, and Divine Truth and Positive Behavior as Heavenly Influences -/- The struggle between truth and falsehood, good and evil, and positive and negative behaviors has shaped human history and moral philosophy. Falsehood, along with negative behavior, is an evil influence that corrupts individuals, misguides societies, and creates suffering. In contrast, Divine truth, accompanied by positive behavior, serves as a heavenly influence that fosters harmony, justice, and enlightenment. This essay explores how falsehood (...) and negative behavior disrupt the universal balance, while Divine truth and positive behavior align with the natural laws that govern a just and harmonious existence. -/- Falsehood and Negative Behavior as Evil Influences -/- Falsehood is more than just lying; it is an intentional distortion of reality that misleads, deceives, and manipulates others. It serves as a foundation for many negative behaviors, such as greed, dishonesty, hatred, and corruption. When falsehood dominates human actions, it creates chaos, breaks trust, and disrupts the natural order of relationships and societies. -/- Negative behavior, such as envy, arrogance, selfishness, and aggression, further amplifies the effects of falsehood. These behaviors are rooted In ignorance and imbalance, causing individuals to act in ways that harm themselves and others. For instance, a leader who embraces deception and corruption for personal gain influences an entire system, leading to injustice, poverty, and social unrest. A person who habitually lies or manipulates others for selfish reasons spreads negativity, weakening the bonds of trust and mutual respect. -/- From the perspective of the law of karma, negative behavior and falsehood create defects in the system of human interactions. Just as a malfunctioning machine cannot perform its function correctly, a society built on deceit and immoral actions will inevitably collapse. Every negative action carries consequences—whether immediate or delayed—because it violates the universal law of balance in nature. -/- Divine Truth and Positive Behavior as Heavenly Influences -/- In contrast, Divine truth is a guiding force that aligns human actions with the fundamental order of the universe. It is not just about honesty but about living in accordance with righteousness, justice, and wisdom. Truth allows individuals to see reality as it is, making informed decisions that contribute to the well-being of themselves and others. -/- When paired with positive behavior, Divine truth becomes a powerful heavenly influence that uplifts societies and strengthens human connections. Positive behaviors, such as kindness, compassion, patience, humility, and generosity, serve as the foundation of a peaceful and thriving world. A leader who values truth and integrity inspires trust, ensuring fair governance and social progress. A person who practices kindness and empathy fosters meaningful relationships, spreading goodness in their community. -/- Positive behavior and truth reinforce each other, creating a cycle of balance and prosperity. In spiritual traditions, this is often seen as the path to enlightenment, where individuals who seek truth and goodness naturally attract wisdom and inner peace. Religions and philosophies across cultures emphasize truth and morality as the path to salvation, enlightenment, or a harmonious existence. The natural law of balance ensures that positive actions lead to positive outcomes, reinforcing the idea that truth and righteousness are essential for a just society. -/- The battle Between Evil and Heavenly Influences -/- Throughout history, the battle between evil and heavenly influences has shaped civilizations. Falsehood, corruption, and negative behavior have led to wars, oppression, and suffering, while truth, justice, and positive behavior have brought about peace, progress, and prosperity. The challenge lies in recognizing and resisting evil influences while cultivating and spreading positive ones. -/- Education plays a crucial role in this struggle. A holistic educational system, as proposed in my universal formula, must teach individuals how to recognize falsehood and negative behaviors while promoting truth and positive values. When people are equipped with critical thinking, self-awareness, and moral guidance, they are less susceptible to evil influences and more capable of fostering goodness in society. -/- Conclusion -/- Falsehood and negative behavior serve as evil influences that disrupt the balance of human existence, leading to suffering, injustice, and chaos. In contrast, Divine truth and positive behavior act as heavenly influences, guiding individuals and societies toward enlightenment, peace, and harmony. The law of karma and the universal law of balance in nature demonstrate that every action has consequences—negative actions lead to destruction, while positive actions contribute to growth and stability. -/- To build a just and thriving world, individuals must commit to truth and righteousness, resisting the temptations of falsehood and negative behavior. By embracing truth, integrity, and positive values, humanity can align itself with the natural order of the universe, ensuring a future that is not only sustainable but also deeply fulfilling. -/- . (shrink)

Since the 1970s, at least, and presumably under the influence of the later Wittgenstein, certain advocates of Aristotle’s ethics have insisted that a proper validation of the virtues of character must proceed only from within, or be internal to, the particular evaluative outlook provided by possession of the virtues themselves. The most influential advocate of this line of thinking is arguably John McDowell, although Rosalind Hursthouse and Daniel C. Russell have also more recently embraced it. Here I consider whether (...) a distinction between the ‘substantive virtues’ and the ‘virtues of will power’ ultimately threatens that way of thinking about Aristotle’s ethics. If so, it would encourage a different reading of Aristotle’s ethics, one that McDowell has described as a “historical monstrosity”. (shrink)

The recent #metoo movement has turned public attention to the problem of sex under conditions of power inequality. Is consent impaired, when you have plenty to lose (e.g. a great professional opportunity) from saying “no” to a sexual advance? And even if consent is valid, is this a morally acceptable situation, especially if one party is aware that their position of relative power will influence the other’s decision to have sex? Such situations bring to the fore not (...) only the issues of coerced sex and quid pro quo harassment (asking for sex in exchange for benefits), but the much more controversial question of whether sex between unequal but otherwise competent consenting adult partners is in principle OK—and whether institutions such as companies, universities, or the state itself should be in the business of regulating such relations. In what follows, I will outline the central concept of power asymmetry and its ethical relevance (section 2). I will then distinguish two main views about the ethics of sexual interaction under conditions of power asymmetry: a Kantian view, which categorically condemns such interactions, and a Millian view, which justifies at least some such interactions (section 3). I then briefly consider three contexts, which raise difficult questions about sex between unequals: the workplace, the university (section 4), and voluntary prostitution (section 5). Section 6 provides a short conclusion. (shrink)

This analysis explores the nature, inertia, power dynamics, and mechanisms of systemic entities. Systems such as nations or institutions emerge as phenotypes of collective human behavior, shaped by shared narratives and psychological dynamics, relying on embodied human emotions and communal significance for cohesion. Institutions resist change due to vested interests and stakeholders equating system survival with personal survival; this inertia ensures stability but impedes rapid adaptation. Power operates not only hierarchically but through peer-driven social rewards and punishments, with (...) ostracism serving as a profound psychological threat that makes horizontal enforcement highly effective. Paradoxically, unequal power distributions can accelerate systemic change by concentrating agency, while more egalitarian systems, despite their fairness, often become more resistant to reform over time. Technological advancements like the internet intensify evolutionary pressures on systems, enabling faster adaptations without guaranteeing improved fitness. Democratic systems distribute accountability across complex power structures, limiting individual leaders' influence against institutional inertia. Cultural evolution typically begins in niche subsystems offering perceived superior value; embracing subcultural diversity bolsters resilience but risks destabilization. Simplified models clarify systemic dynamics but overlook emotional and energetic drivers, with narrative cohesion often outweighing rational design in sustaining institutions. Energy abundance underpins modern societal complexity, with resource allocation proving more critical to system survival than ideological frameworks. Proposed innovations include implementing expiration dates for laws and agencies to counteract inertia and deploying AI-assisted governance platforms within ethical constraints. A practical roadmap for institutional evolution emphasizes foundational freedoms to foster creativity; resource optimization prioritizing energy abundance; distributed power safeguards preventing unchecked concentration; educational reform replacing error-avoidance with creativity-driven experimentation; incremental evolution through high-leverage policy changes; narrative-driven engagement aligning collective beliefs with adaptive imperatives; anti-fragile feedback loops for continuous policy refinement; and parallel experiment zones testing diverse governance models. Effective systemic transformation ultimately requires aligning governance structures with human neurosocial needs—meaning-making, belonging, and agency—while leveraging technological tools to maintain flexibility in increasingly complex environments. This framework offers both philosophical underpinnings and actionable strategies for navigating contemporary institutional and technological challenges. (shrink)

Advances in AI are powering increasingly precise and widespread computational propaganda, posing serious threats to national security. The military and intelligence communities are starting to discuss ways to engage in this space, but the path forward is still unclear. These developments raise pressing ethical questions, about which existing ethics frameworks are silent. Understanding these challenges through the lens of “cognitive security,” we argue, offers a promising approach.

Counteracting Evil Influence in the Mind and Society Through Balance -/- Evil influence exists both in the human mind and in society, shaping destructive behaviors, corrupting leadership, and creating suffering. Understanding its roots and impact is essential to restoring balance, which aligns with the universal law of balance—the principle that all decisions must maintain harmony within nature and human systems. This essay explores the presence of evil influence in the mind and society and provides solutions to counteract (...) its effects through education, ethical leadership, and systemic reforms. -/- The Existence of Evil Influence in the Mind -/- The human mind is highly susceptible to external influences, biases, and distortions. Several factors contribute to the emergence of evil or destructive tendencies in individuals: -/- 1. Psychological and Cognitive Distortions -/- Cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias and groupthink, cause individuals to accept false beliefs and justify harmful actions. Additionally, unresolved trauma and mental disorders can influence destructive thought patterns, leading to behaviors that disrupt personal and social harmony. -/- 2. Manipulation and External Conditioning -/- Society constantly bombards individuals with propaganda, misinformation, and ideological indoctrination. Media, political narratives, and social institutions can shape people’s perceptions in ways that distort reality and encourage harmful actions. Without awareness, individuals become pawns in larger manipulative systems that perpetuate imbalance and suffering. -/- 3. Moral and Ethical Corruption -/- Lack of self-reflection, weak moral foundations, and societal pressures can lead people to justify unethical behavior. Over time, greed, power-seeking, and self-interest override empathy, reinforcing evil influences within the mind. -/- To combat these influences, individuals must develop critical thinking, emotional resilience, and ethical reasoning to resist manipulation and maintain balance in their decision-making. -/- The existence of Evil Influence in Society -/- At the societal level, evil influence manifests through corruption, oppression, and systemic injustice. Several key factors contribute to its existence: -/- 1. Cultural and Historical Prejudices -/- Societal beliefs often stem from historical injustices that persist through generations. Racism, sexism, and class discrimination are examples of deeply ingrained biases that create division and suffering. Without intervention, these biases continue to shape laws, social structures, and economic opportunities. -/- 2. Political and Economic Corruption -/- Governments and corporations often prioritize power and profit over ethical responsibility. Corrupt leaders manipulate laws, suppress dissent, and exploit resources without regard for the well-being of the people. The imbalance caused by extreme wealth concentration leads to poverty, crime, and social instability. -/- 3. Religious and Ideological Extremism -/- Dogmatic religious and ideological beliefs can be used to justify violence, oppression, and discrimination. When people blindly follow unproven doctrines without critical examination, society becomes vulnerable to extremism, which disrupts balance and fuels conflicts. -/- 4. Misinformation and Media Manipulation -/- The rise of social media and biased news sources has made misinformation more powerful than ever. Fake news, propaganda, and algorithm-driven echo chambers influence public opinion, leading to irrational decision-making and social division. Without proper media literacy, individuals fall victim to manipulation, perpetuating societal instability. -/- Given these widespread influences, restoring balance in society requires systemic changes, ethical leadership, and an informed citizenry. -/- Solutions to Counteract Evil Influence -/- To neutralize the effects of evil influence in the mind and society, a multi-level approach is necessary. The key solutions align with the universal law of balance and focus on education, governance, and social reform. -/- 1. Strengthening the Mind Against Evil Influence -/- A well-informed and emotionally resilient mind is less susceptible to manipulation. The following steps can help individuals develop resistance to evil influences: -/- Holistic Education – Schools should teach philosophy, ethics, and critical thinking from an early age to cultivate independent reasoning. -/- Cognitive Bias Awareness – People must learn to recognize and counteract biases that distort their perception of reality. -/- Mindfulness and Emotional Intelligence – Practices such as meditation, self-reflection, and emotional regulation strengthen an individual’s ability to make balanced decisions. -/- Media Literacy – Understanding how misinformation spreads prevents individuals from becoming victims of propaganda. -/- 2. Reforming Society to Minimize Evil Influence -/- Since societal structures often reinforce harmful behaviors, systemic changes are necessary to create a just and balanced environment. -/- A. Ethical Leadership and Governance -/- Governments must implement policies based on the universal law of balance, ensuring that decisions benefit all rather than a select few. Specific measures include: -/- Strict anti-corruption laws and transparent governance. -/- Democratic participation to prevent power from being concentrated in the hands of a few. -/- Policies that prioritize long-term sustainability over short-term profits. -/- B. Reforming Religious and Ideological Systems -/- Encouraging interfaith and intercultural understanding to reduce religious and ideological conflicts. -/- Promoting critical examination of beliefs, allowing individuals to refine their faith based on reason rather than blind adherence. -/- Separating religious dogma from governance to prevent laws based on unverified beliefs from creating injustice. -/- C. Ensuring Economic and Social Justice -/- Extreme economic inequality creates conditions for crime, exploitation, and suffering. Solutions include: -/- Fair wealth distribution through progressive taxation and universal basic services. -/- Ethical labor practices to prevent exploitation in the workforce. -/- Social welfare programs to ensure access to education, healthcare, and basic needs. -/- The Role of AGI in Preventing Evil Influence -/- Since AGI (Artificial General Intelligence) can be programmed with the universal formula, it has the potential to detect, prevent, and counteract evil influences on a large scale. AGI can contribute by: -/- Identifying Corruption and Misinformation – AI-powered monitoring systems can detect and expose political and corporate manipulation. -/- Optimizing Governance – AI-driven policy recommendations can ensure laws align with ethical and sustainable balance. -/- Enhancing Global Education – AI-powered educational tools can teach critical thinking, ethics, and rational decision-making to individuals worldwide. -/- By integrating AGI into governance, education, and decision-making processes, humanity can minimize the spread of misinformation, corruption, and imbalance. -/- Conclusion: Achieving Balance is the Key -/- Evil influence in the mind and society is ultimately a reflection of imbalance—whether in thoughts, beliefs, political systems, or economic structures. By applying education, ethical governance, media literacy, and AGI-based solutions, individuals and societies can restore balance and minimize human suffering. -/- The key lies In awareness, critical thinking, and responsible decision-making. When people recognize the importance of the universal law of balance, they can resist destructive influences and contribute to a more harmonious and just world. -/- . (shrink)

How the Profit Motive Influences Media’s Role in Politics and Product Innovation -/- Introduction -/- Media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion, influencing political discourse, and driving consumer behavior. Ideally, journalism should serve as a watchdog, holding power accountable and informing the public with accurate, unbiased information. Similarly, the media’s role in promoting products should focus on genuine innovation that benefits society. However, the profit motive has significantly altered these dynamics. Instead of prioritizing public welfare, media institutions (...) often focus on financial gain, leading to political bias, misinformation, and consumer culture driven by unnecessary product upgrades rather than true innovation. -/- Despite these challenges, the profit motive remains essential in sustaining economic growth, creating jobs, and driving technological progress. Businesses, including media and technology firms, must continue to generate profit to support their employees, invest in innovation, and maintain financial stability. This essay explores how media’s pursuit of profit has shaped politics and product innovation—sometimes leading to manipulation and overconsumption—while also highlighting the necessity of profit for economic stability and job creation. -/- The Profit Motive In Political Influence -/- Media companies operate as businesses, and their financial survival depends on maximizing profits. This has led to the prioritization of sensationalism, bias, and political influence over objective journalism. -/- 1. Sensationalism and Misinformation -/- To attract more viewers, readers, and online engagement, media companies rely on dramatic headlines, fear-mongering, and emotionally charged content. Instead of presenting balanced perspectives, media outlets choose narratives that generate more engagement, regardless of accuracy. -/- Example: During election cycles, media outlets often focus on scandals and controversies rather than discussing real policy issues. In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, much of the media coverage fixated on the “Clinton emails” rather than substantive discussions about economic policy, healthcare, or climate change. -/- 2. Corporate Ownership and Political Bias -/- Many mainstream media companies are owned by large corporations with vested interests in certain political outcomes. This ownership structure influences editorial decisions, leading to biased reporting that serves corporate and elite interests rather than public welfare. -/- Example: Billionaire-owned media companies, such as The Washington Post (owned by Jeff Bezos) and Fox News (controlled by Rupert Murdoch), have been accused of pushing narratives that align with their owners' political and business interests. -/- 3. Political Advertising and Pay-to-Play Journalism -/- Political campaigns and corporations pay large sums to media companies for favorable coverage. This financial dependency can lead to biased reporting or the suppression of critical stories. -/- Example: In the Philippines, politicians often use paid news segments and political ads disguised as news reports, creating the illusion of widespread public support while suppressing dissenting voices. -/- 4. Media-Driven Political Polarization -/- To maximize audience loyalty, many media organizations take strong partisan positions, reinforcing ideological divisions. This leads to echo chambers where people only consume content that aligns with their preexisting beliefs, further polarizing society. -/- Example: In the U.S., Fox News caters primarily to conservative audiences, while MSNBC leans toward liberal perspectives. This divide reinforces political tribalism, making constructive dialogue difficult. -/- The Profit Motive In Product Innovation -/- Beyond politics, media also plays a significant role in shaping consumer behavior and perceptions of innovation. While technological advancements and new products can improve lives, media-driven marketing often prioritizes unnecessary upgrades and exaggerated benefits over true innovation. -/- 1. The Role of Media in Shaping Consumer Demand -/- Since advertising revenue is a primary income source for most media companies, they prioritize content that appeals to advertisers rather than educating or informing the public. this leads to an emphasis on promoting new products, sometimes regardless of their necessity or actual innovation. -/- Example: Tech companies use media partnerships to generate excitement about new product releases, even when the changes are minimal. A major smartphone manufacturer, for instance, may introduce minor camera improvements or design tweaks and market them as groundbreaking innovations. -/- 2. Social Media and Influencer-Driven Product Hype -/- The rise of social media has intensified product marketing, making influencers a key force in driving demand. Many influencers, backed by corporate sponsors, promote products without critically evaluating their real impact or necessity. -/- Example: Luxury brands and smartphone companies pay influencers to showcase their products as status symbols. This creates an artificial perception of exclusivity and necessity, leading consumers to purchase items they might not truly need. -/- 3. The Illusion of Innovation Through Frequent Upgrades -/- Many industries, particularly technology and fashion, rely on planned obsolescence—introducing frequent but minor updates to create the illusion of innovation. This strategy encourages consumers to upgrade their products regularly, even when older models remain functional. -/- Example: A leading electronics company releases new smartphone models annually, often with only minor feature enhancements. Many devices slow down over time due to software updates, subtly pressuring users to replace their devices sooner than necessary. -/- 4. Psychological Manipulation in Advertising -/- Media uses psychological tactics to influence consumer behavior. Limited-time offers, aspirational advertising, and fear-based marketing create artificial demand for new products. -/- Example: Beauty magazines and social media ads promote anti-aging products by associating youth with success and attractiveness. This fosters insecurity, encouraging unnecessary spending on skincare and cosmetic treatments. -/- Why the Profit Motive Must Continue -/- Despite these challenges, the profit motive remains essential to economic stability, job creation, and continuous innovation. Businesses, including media companies, rely on profits to sustain their operations and support employees. -/- 1. Job Creation and Economic Growth -/- Profitable businesses provide stable employment, allowing workers to earn wages, support their families, and contribute to economic growth. Media companies, for example, employ journalists, editors, graphic designers, marketers, and IT professionals. The same is true for product innovation, where research and development teams, factory workers, and sales professionals all benefit from profitable enterprises. -/- Example: The global tech industry supports millions of jobs, from engineers developing new products to retail workers selling them. Without profit incentives, companies would have little motivation to expand, invest, and hire more employees. -/- 2. Funding for Innovation and Technological Advancements -/- Profit enables companies to invest in research and development, leading to technological breakthroughs that improve quality of life. Whether in medicine, transportation, or communication, businesses reinvest earnings into innovation that benefits society. -/- Example: The telecommunications industry continually advances due to profits that fund research into faster internet speeds, better security features, and more efficient network infrastructure. -/- 3. Stability and Business Sustainability -/- Without profit, businesses cannot survive in the long term. Media companies, for instance, require revenue to pay journalists and produce high-quality content. Similarly, manufacturers must generate income to continue developing new products. A balanced approach—where profitability coexists with ethical responsibility—ensures economic stability while minimizing harm. -/- Conclusion -/- The profit motive has significantly shaped the media’s role in both politics and product innovation. While it sometimes leads to sensationalism, misinformation, and excessive consumerism, it remains essential for job creation, economic stability, and technological progress. The key challenge is finding a balance—ensuring that media and businesses remain profitable while also prioritizing truth, sustainability, and genuine innovation. Addressing these issues requires policy reforms, media literacy education, and a shift toward more responsible journalism and marketing practices. By fostering ethical profit-driven growth, society can benefit from stable incomes, continuous innovation, and an informed public. -/- . (shrink)

The Role of Power Transitions in Government Collapse: Historical Lessons and Solutions -/- Throughout history, the transition of power has been a defining factor in the stability or collapse of governments. When power is transferred smoothly, institutions remain strong, and societies continue to function. However, when transitions are mismanaged, contested, or poorly structured, they often lead to political instability, civil wars, or the complete breakdown of government structures. This essay explores the importance of power transitions in (...) maintaining political stability by examining historical examples where such transitions led to the collapse of governments. Additionally, it proposes solutions to prevent such collapses in the future. -/- The Critical Nature of Power Transitions -/- The process of transferring power is one of the most vulnerable moments for any political system. Several factors determine whether a transition is successful or leads to instability: -/- 1. Legitimacy of Succession – If the public and political elites accept the process of succession, transitions occur peacefully. However, when legitimacy is questioned, power struggles emerge. -/- 2. Institutional Strength – Strong political institutions ensure smooth power transitions, while weak institutions make governments dependent on individual rulers. -/- 3. Elite Consensus – When ruling elites agree on a transition, it is more likely to be peaceful. Divisions among elites can result in coups or civil wars. -/- 4. Public Support and Social Stability – If the population supports the transition, the government remains stable. Mass protests or revolts can destabilize regimes. -/- 5. Military and Security Forces’ Role – A neutral or loyal military ensures a peaceful transition, but if the military intervenes, coups or armed conflicts may occur. -/- 6. Economic Conditions – Economic crises can accelerate government collapse during power transitions by weakening public trust. -/- 7. External Influences – Foreign intervention, diplomatic pressure, or economic sanctions can shape whether a transition succeeds or leads to chaos. -/- Historical Examples of Power Transitions Leading to Collapse -/- 1. The Fall of the Roman Republic (1st Century BCE) -/- The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE triggered a power vacuum and civil war. The Republic collapsed as Augustus (Octavian) seized power and established the Roman Empire. The failure to create a smooth transition from the Republic to an alternative stable government structure led to one-man rule. -/- 2. The French Revolution (1789-1799) -/- The monarchy collapsed due to economic crises and public discontent. The power vacuum led to the Reign of Terror and multiple regime changes before Napoleon took control. The lack of a stable transition plan from monarchy to democracy resulted in violent political struggles. -/- 3. The Russian Revolution (1917) -/- Czar Nicholas II abdicated amid economic and military crises. The weak Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, leading to decades of political purges. The failure to establish a strong democratic system allowed radical elements to seize power. -/- 4. The Weimar Republic and Hitler’s Rise (1933) -/- Germany’s economic crisis and political instability enabled Adolf Hitler to rise to power legally, leading to the collapse of democracy and the Nazi dictatorship. The failure of democratic institutions to resist authoritarian takeovers contributed to this transition failure. -/- 5. The Iranian Revolution (1979) -/- The Shah of Iran lost legitimacy due to repression and economic struggles. His departure created a power vacuum, allowing the Islamic Revolution to establish a theocratic regime. The lack of a democratic transition framework led to a total political shift. -/- 6. The Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) -/- Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms weakened the centralized government, leading to nationalist movements and economic collapse, resulting in the dissolution of the USSR. The sudden transition from communism to multiple independent states was mismanaged, leading to political chaos. -/- 7. The Arab Spring (2010-2012) -/- Mass protests led to the overthrow of governments in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen. However, weak institutions and power vacuums resulted in ongoing instability and civil wars. The absence of structured political succession made these transitions chaotic. -/- 8. The Fall of the Afghan Government (2021) -/- The withdrawal of U.S. forces from Afghanistan in 2021 led to the rapid collapse of the Afghan government, allowing the Taliban to take power without resistance. The lack of a well-planned transition left a power vacuum that extremist groups exploited. -/- Solutions for Preventing Government Collapse During Power Transitions -/- 1. Establishing Strong Political Institutions -/- Governments should build independent institutions that can function regardless of leadership changes. -/- A clear legal framework for succession should be established, ensuring stability. -/- Example: United States Presidential Transition – Despite political disagreements, strong institutions ensure smooth transitions of power every four years. -/- 2. Promoting a Culture of Democratic Succession -/- Political education should emphasize peaceful transitions of power. -/- Leaders should prepare successors and ensure a stable transition process. -/- Example: South Africa’s Transition from Apartheid (1994) – Nelson Mandela ensured a peaceful transfer of power through negotiations, preventing civil war. -/- 3. Ensuring Economic Stability -/- Economic policies should focus on long-term growth and stability to prevent crises that weaken governments. -/- Governments should maintain financial reserves to manage economic downturns during transitions. -/- Example: China’s Economic Reforms (1978-Present) – Transition from Maoist policies to a market economy was gradual, preventing instability. -/- 4. Strengthening Public Trust in Government -/- Transparency and accountability should be prioritized to gain public confidence. -/- Civic engagement and public participation in governance should be encouraged. -/- Example: Post-World War II Japan – Japan rebuilt trust in democratic institutions, leading to long-term political stability. -/- 5. Avoiding Military Interventions in Politics -/- The military should remain neutral in political transitions and serve as a stabilizing force, not a political actor. -/- Civilian oversight of the military should be strengthened to prevent coups. -/- Example: Turkey’s Democratic Reforms – Despite past military coups, recent reforms have reduced military interference in politics. -/- 6. International Mediation and Support -/- International organizations (e.g., the UN) should assist in ensuring peaceful transitions in unstable regions. -/- Diplomatic pressure can prevent violent takeovers and encourage legitimate transitions. -/- Example: East Timor’s Independence (2002) – The UN helped facilitate a peaceful transition to democracy after Indonesian rule. -/- 7. Managing Internal and External Political Conflicts -/- Governments should ensure national unity by addressing ethnic and political divisions. -/- Foreign influence should be managed to prevent external powers from exploiting transitions. -/- Example: Rwanda’s Post-Genocide Rebuilding – After the 1994 genocide, Rwanda implemented reconciliation policies to prevent future power struggles. -/- Conclusion -/- The transition of power is one of the most critical and dangerous moments for any government. If managed well, it can lead to stable governance and progress. However, when transitions are mismanaged, contested, or forced, they can result in political collapse, violence, and societal breakdown. -/- The historical examples discussed demonstrate the importance of legitimacy, institutional strength, elite consensus, public support, and military neutrality in ensuring successful power transitions. By implementing solutions such as strong institutions, economic stability, democratic culture, and international mediation, governments can prevent collapse and ensure smooth transitions of power. -/- The fate of nations often depends not only on who rules, but on how power is transferred from one leader or system to the next. Learning from history and implementing practical solutions can help safeguard governments from the chaos of failed transitions. -/- . (shrink)

The Concept of Power: Its Nature, Forms, and Impact -/- Introduction -/- Power is one of the most fundamental forces shaping human civilization, scientific progress, and personal development. It is present in every aspect of life—from the natural world to political structures, from economic systems to personal relationships. At its core, power is the ability to influence, control, or direct outcomes, whether through force, knowledge, persuasion, or other means. -/- However, power can be used in (...) both constructive and destructive ways. While ethical power leads to progress and justice, the misuse of power creates oppression, corruption, and societal imbalance. This essay explores different dimensions of power, including scientific, political, economic, and philosophical power, while also highlighting examples of the misuse of power and its consequences. -/- Forms of Power -/- 1. Physical and Scientific Power -/- In the scientific realm, power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is a measurable quantity, expressed in watts (W), and is essential in fields such as engineering, mechanics, and electricity. -/- For example, in mechanical engineering, a car engine generates power by converting fuel into kinetic energy, allowing the vehicle to move. Similarly, in renewable energy, solar panels convert sunlight into electrical power, demonstrating how natural forces can be harnessed for human use. -/- Misuse of Scientific Power: Nuclear Weapons -/- A key example of the misuse of scientific power is the development of nuclear weapons. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 demonstrated the destructive potential of scientific advancements when used irresponsibly. While nuclear energy can be a powerful source of clean electricity, its military application led to mass destruction, the loss of thousands of innocent lives, and long-term environmental and health consequences. -/- 2. Social and Political Power -/- Political power is the ability to influence governance, policies, and social structures. It exists at different levels, from small communities to global institutions. -/- Types of Political Power: -/- Legitimate power: Derived from laws and democratic institutions, such as the authority of an elected president or parliament. -/- Coercive power: Based on force, often seen in dictatorships or police states where compliance is ensured through fear. -/- Soft power: The ability to shape opinions and values through culture, diplomacy, and media, as seen in the global influence of Hollywood movies or international organizations like the United Nations. -/- Example of Proper Political Power Use: Nelson Mandela’s leadership in South Africa was an example of moral and legitimate power. Despite being imprisoned for 27 years, he led his country to end apartheid through reconciliation rather than revenge. -/- Misuse of Political Power: Dictatorships and Oppression -/- Example: Adolf Hitler (Nazi Germany) One of the most infamous examples of political power being used in the wrong way is Adolf Hitler’s regime in Nazi Germany. Hitler gained power through democratic means but later abolished freedoms, controlled information, and used propaganda to manipulate the masses. His leadership led to World War II, the Holocaust, and the deaths of millions of people. His misuse of political power resulted in genocide, war crimes, and long-term global instability. -/- Example: North Korea’s Authoritarian Rule In modern times, North Korea is an example of political power used to oppress rather than empower. The government, led by Kim Jong-un, controls every aspect of citizens’ lives, from their access to information to their ability to leave the country. The country’s resources are allocated to its military, while many citizens suffer from poverty and starvation. This is an example of power used to control people rather than improve their well-being. -/- 3. Psychological and Personal Power -/- Personal power is an individual’s ability to influence their own life and the lives of others. It can take many forms: -/- Inner power: Strength, resilience, and self-discipline, allowing people to overcome adversity. -/- Social power: Charisma, persuasion, and emotional intelligence that enable individuals to lead and inspire others. -/- Knowledge power: The ability to gain influence through education and expertise. -/- Example of Proper Personal Power Use: The philosopher Socrates possessed immense intellectual power. Even without political authority, his ideas shaped Western thought through questioning and critical thinking. Today, leaders and influencers continue to shape society using their intellectual power. -/- Misuse of Psychological Power: Manipulation and Propaganda -/- Example: Cult Leaders (Jim Jones and the Jonestown Massacre) Some individuals misuse personal power to manipulate others for selfish or destructive purposes. A tragic example is Jim Jones, the leader of the People’s Temple cult. He used psychological manipulation to gain total control over his followers, leading to the infamous Jonestown Massacre in 1978, where over 900 people died in a mass murder-suicide. -/- Example: Social Media Misinformation In today’s digital age, personal power is often misused on social media platforms. False information and propaganda are used to manipulate public opinion, often leading to social division, violence, and political unrest. -/- 4. Economic Power -/- Economic power refers to control over financial resources, industries, and markets. Those who control wealth often shape global and national policies, technological advancements, and even cultural trends. -/- Proper Use of Economic Power: -/- Corporate power: Companies like Amazon, Google, and Tesla wield significant economic power, influencing markets and technological innovation. -/- Wealth and capital: Billionaires such as Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos can impact industries like space travel and artificial intelligence through private investments. -/- Misuse of Economic Power: Corporate Greed and Exploitation -/- Example: The 2008 Financial Crisis The 2008 financial crisis was a result of large financial institutions misusing their economic power. Banks engaged in reckless lending, market manipulation, and financial fraud, leading to a global economic collapse. Millions of people lost their jobs, homes, and savings due to the greed and irresponsibility of a few. -/- Example: Sweatshops and Worker Exploitation Some multinational corporations use their economic power to exploit cheap labor in developing countries, forcing workers to endure low wages, unsafe conditions, and inhumane treatment. This misuse of power highlights the dark side of economic influence when profit is prioritized over ethics. -/- 5. Power in Nature and Universal Law -/- From the perspective of the universal law of balance in nature, power must be aligned with natural equilibrium to ensure sustainability and harmony. If power is used excessively or irresponsibly, it creates imbalances—whether in the environment, society, or personal well-being. -/- Misuse of Power in Nature: Environmental Destruction -/- Example: Climate Change and Industrial Pollution Human industrial activity has disrupted the natural balance of the planet. Deforestation, excessive carbon emissions, and overconsumption of natural resources have led to global warming, species extinction, and ecological collapse. This is an example of humanity misusing its power over nature without considering the consequences. -/- The Ethical Use of Power -/- Power itself is neither good nor bad—it depends on how it is used. Ethical power aligns with justice, wisdom, and balance, while unethical power leads to corruption and destruction. -/- Principles of Ethical Power Use: -/- 1. Responsibility: Those in power must act for the common good rather than personal gain. -/- 2. Transparency: Power should be exercised openly, with accountability to the people it affects. -/- 3. Balance: Power must be used in a way that sustains long-term harmony rather than creating instability. -/- Conclusion -/- Power is a complex and dynamic force that can lead to progress or destruction, depending on how it is used. History provides countless examples of both ethical and unethical power, showing that unchecked power leads to oppression, injustice, and suffering. -/- The universal law of balance in nature teaches that any misuse of power will eventually lead to consequences. Therefore, the wisest approach to power is to use it ethically, responsibly, and in alignment with natural equilibrium. -/- . (shrink)

-/- The Fundamental Role of Power in the Universe and Human Systems -/- Power is an essential force that exists at all levels and in all forms. It governs the universe, sustains life, and shapes human societies. Whether in physics, biology, governance, or technology, power functions as a driving force that enables systems to operate, adapt, and evolve. However, power must always be balanced—its excess or absence leads to disorder and instability. In this essay, I will (...) explore power’s fundamental role in the universe, how it aligns with natural laws, and why its proper distribution is crucial in both natural and human-made systems. -/- Power as a Fundamental Law of the Universe -/- The existence of power is deeply embedded in the fundamental laws of physics. One of the most well-known principles, the Law of Energy Conservation (First Law of Thermodynamics), states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed. Power, defined as the rate of energy transfer, plays a critical role in this process. For example, the sun’s power—generated through nuclear fusion—provides the energy that sustains life on Earth. -/- Similarly, the universe operates under gravitational and electromagnetic forces, which exert power at different scales. Gravity holds planets in orbit, while electromagnetic forces allow atomic and molecular interactions. Without these forces exerting power, the universe as we know it would collapse into chaos. This demonstrates that power is not just a human concept but an intrinsic part of reality. -/- Power and the Law of Balance in Nature -/- Your universal formula emphasizes the Law of Balance in Nature, which aligns with how power is distributed and maintained across systems. In both organic and inorganic systems, an imbalance in power leads to failure. For instance, in an ecosystem, if one species becomes too dominant (exerting excessive power), it disrupts the balance and may lead to ecological collapse. Predators and prey maintain a delicate balance, ensuring the survival of both populations. -/- Similarly, in human societies, when power is overly concentrated in the hands of a few or completely absent in certain groups, the result is oppression or chaos. Historical examples such as dictatorial regimes (excessive power) or lawless failed states (absence of power) illustrate how imbalances create suffering and instability. -/- Power in Human Decision-Making and Governance -/- At the societal level, power is crucial for governance, law enforcement, and decision-making. Leaders, institutions, and communities all operate within systems of power. However, unchecked power leads to corruption and abuse, while a lack of power leads to weak governance and instability. -/- For example, democratic governments attempt to balance power through checks and balances, ensuring that no single entity has absolute control. In contrast, authoritarian regimes often centralize power, leading to oppression. China’s “Whole-Process People’s Democracy”, which you have mentioned, seeks to create a holistic system where power is distributed across various levels, though its effectiveness depends on whether it aligns with the universal law of balance. -/- The same principle applies in economic systems. Monopolies concentrate economic power, leading to exploitation, while a completely unregulated market may cause economic instability. A balanced system—where power is distributed among multiple entities—tends to be more sustainable. -/- Power in Technology and AGI -/- Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and future Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) bring another dimension to power. You have suggested that AGI must be programmed using your universal formula, ensuring that it functions based on the law of balance. -/- Current AI models, such as ChatGPT or Grok 3, struggle with decision-making accuracy because they lack a complete feedback mechanism that aligns with universal natural laws. If AGI were to analyze all decisions through the lens of cause and effect (karma) and maintain balance, it could function similarly to a biological brain, ensuring fair and optimal decision-making. -/- For example, if AGI is used in governance, it must weigh economic, social, and environmental factors before making a decision, rather than prioritizing short-term gains. Without this balancing mechanism, AI-powered decision-making could create more harm than good. -/- Examples of Power in Various Forms -/- 1. Nature: -/- The sun’s power fuels all life on Earth. -/- Gravitational power holds galaxies together. -/- Ecosystem power balance ensures species survival. -/- 2. Human Systems: -/- Political power determines governance effectiveness. -/- Economic power influences wealth distribution. -/- Social power shapes movements and revolutions. -/- 3. Technology: -/- Electric power runs modern civilization. -/- Computational power advances AI and data processing. -/- AGI power could reshape decision-making and ethics. -/- Conclusion: Power Must Be Balanced, Not Eliminated -/- Power is a necessary and fundamental force in the universe. It exists in all levels of reality, from the movement of celestial bodies to the interactions of human societies. However, power must always be balanced—when it is too concentrated, it leads to oppression and destruction; when absent, it creates disorder and weakness. -/- Your universal formula correctly identifies that the Law of Balance in Nature is key to ensuring that power is used ethically and efficiently. Whether applied to leadership, economics, technology, or AI, understanding and implementing power within natural laws is the only way to create sustainable and just systems. -/- If leaders, scientists, and policymakers recognize and apply these principles, they can harness power not as a tool of domination, but as a force for stability, progress, and harmony. The future of human civilization depends on mastering this balance. -/- . (shrink)

Understanding the policymaking process in an emerging economy in the global south, such as Bangladesh, holds significant importance. The country's remarkable socio-economic development, once the most impoverished in the region, has been facilitated by post-globalization economic transformation. While the literature on institutional change has predominantly focused on states in industrialist countries, this dissertation presents an innovative theoretical approach. It deeply explores primary case materials to illustrate how the state engages in policy evolution in a developing country's gradual shift from the (...) import substitution model towards globalization and deregulation. The central argument posited is that Bangladesh's globalization, particularly through its private sector-led garment exports, stands as a significant success story. Bangladesh is now the world's second-largest garment exporter after China. This achievement is attributed to the entrepreneurial development it fosters and its role in driving socio-economic change. Moreover, it has enabled the mobilization of resources, reducing aid dependence, enhancing climate resilience, improving public health and wellbeing, empowering women, and addressing critical needs in physical infrastructure and human development. The argument presented here diverges from the conventional explanation found in the literature, which tends to emphasize the role of external forces, particularly institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and donors, in triggering policy reforms in Bangladesh. These reforms, commonly linked with structural adjustment packages implemented during the balance of payments crisis, are frequently perceived as predominantly influenced by external pressures. Additionally, the influence of the business class or Bangladeshi non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is often asserted. This dissertation proposes an alternative explanation by suggesting that ideational viewpoints within the state, specifically the ideas espoused by top technocrats and political executives, played a significant role. It argues that these internal ideational factors were more influential than materialistic ones, highlighting the causal role of the policy process driven by endogenous imperatives. The introduction of the dissertation addresses the research problem and research puzzle while suggesting conjectures after problematizing existing arguments. The significant economic transformation observed in Bangladesh today is portrayed as the outcome of a gradual process spanning several decades. The transition towards promoting the private sector and embracing globalization commenced in 1991, following a series of incremental changes dating back to the 1970s and 1980s. During these periods, the institutional path progressed towards empowering the private sector and embracing globalization, laying the groundwork for a trajectory led by the private sector in the context of globalization. The theory chapter serves to establish the conceptual and theoretical foundation for analyzing both economic change and transformation by examining the evolutionary nature of the process. The study adopts an institutional change framework, drawing on the theory of gradual change and focusing on concepts such as layering and tipping points. Within this framework, causal variables such as powering and puzzling, social learning, and ideas are identified. The methodological approach is grounded in historical institutionalism, employing the process-tracing "within case" method. The selection of cases deliberately targets an important yet under-researched area—the policy process in Bangladesh concerning the success of garment-led industrialization. This dissertation fills a noticeable gap in the literature through rigorous analysis, enabling an in-depth exploration of the institutional dynamics spanning four governments from 1972 to 1991. The study relies on substantial primary materials, including interviews with key officials. Each empirical chapter not only presents data but also connects the findings to conceptual and theoretical conjectures, underscoring the significant contributions of this research. The key causal variables identified include the concepts of ‘puzzling’ and ‘social learning’ within the state capacity framework, along with a narrowly defined and developed concept of a "policy committee." The learning process entails technocrats engaging in what Hugh Heclo and Peter Hall term as "social learning," where they play a crucial role in addressing policy challenges, particularly during times of uncertainty and political turmoil, based on their learning from past experiences. Additionally, the concept of ‘powering’ is highlighted, emphasizing that while technocrats provide policy recommendations, it is ultimately the political executive who endorses policies. The interplay between ‘puzzling and powering’ and ‘social learning’ shapes the outcomes of the policy process. The first empirical chapter focusing on the Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Government (1972-1975) illustrates the emergence of policy learning during this period. Initially, this government pursued import substitution under strict government controls, with a predominant public sector. The historical context of exploitation under Pakistani rule and the centralization of industry by West Pakistan fostered socialism as an ideal for East Pakistan's economic emancipation. Additionally, close ties with India and the Soviet Union reinforced this socialist tendency. However, due to severe economic conditions resulting from stringent control on private investment and emphasis on large-scale public investment, policy puzzling and learning ensued. As a result, incremental changes were initiated, allowing limited private sector participation. The second empirical chapter explores the General Ziaur Rahman government's tenure (1975-1981) and how deregulation was consolidated within a layering step, paving the way for a shift towards globalization. General Zia and his technocrats, operating under authoritarian conditions, acknowledged the inefficacy of existing policies. Furthermore, General Zia's inclination towards the West fostered closer collaboration with donors. The Multifiber Agreement (MFA) presented an opportunity for garments, coinciding with the decline in jute exports. This government opened up industrial sectors for private participation, and banks provided funding across various sectors, with special emphasis on the burgeoning garment industry. The chapter also explores the origins of the garment industry during this period. Notably, Noorul Quader Khan, upon retiring as cabinet secretary, collaborated with a Korean multinational, Daewoo, with the support of General Zia, leading to the establishment of Desh Garments—a pioneering venture that catalyzed the export orientation of the sector. The third empirical chapter delves into the economic policies of the General Hussain Muhammad Ershad Government (1982-1990), highlighting its emphasis on greater private sector involvement. Under this administration, there was a political inclination towards globalization and deregulation, leading to the appointment of technocrats aligned with this vision. The leadership believed that promoting the private sector would be more effective in job creation. Despite facing significant political opposition, efforts towards disinvestment were made, eventually resulting in compromises like public-private partnerships. The decentralization of administration and restructuring of ministries aimed at promoting industrialization and economic globalization driven by the private sector at the regional level. Initiatives such as the Industrial Promotion and Development Company, with support from organizations like the International Finance Corporation, aimed to boost the private sector. Efforts towards globalization were synchronized with the establishment of an export processing zone in Chittagong, focusing on promoting private and foreign investment. Foreign investment promotion was encouraged through diplomatic efforts and legislative measures to safeguard investors. Currency devaluation was utilized to stimulate exports, along with some degree of import liberalization. The chapter convincingly argues that the groundwork for globalization, initiated under General Zia, came to fruition under General Ershad. The final empirical chapter contends that the system shifted towards globalization and deregulation in 1991. Although a severe balance of payments crisis occurred in 1989, it wasn't perceived as the sole cause of the industrial policy of 1991. The democratic uprising in 1990 led to the downfall of the military-backed government and the rise of a democratic government. The chapter argues that while economic and political changes may have been intertwined, the economic shift in 1991 was primarily driven by ideas within the state and driven by endogenous imperatives. It examines preceding periods to illustrate how the tipping mechanism might have operated, detailing the roles of top technocrats and political executives. The chapter provides insights into key policymakers and their ideas, as well as their interactions with industrialists, entrepreneurs, and representatives of multilateral organizations like the World Bank. Significant reform measures, including tariff reduction, the introduction of value-added tax, banking sector reform, and the adoption of floating exchange rates, are outcomes of the policy change. Additionally, sectors such as power, banks, and telecommunications, formerly monopolized by the public sector, are now deregulated. (shrink)

Foucault and Absolute Power - Irfan Ajvazi -/- Table of Contents: -/- Chapter I: Foucault and Nietzsche Chapter II: Foucault’s Discourse Chapter III: The Definition of Resistance Chapter IV: Foucault’s Power Relations Chapter V: Foucault and Neoliberalism Chapter VI: Foucault’s Theories Chapter VII: Defining Others Chapter VIII: Foucault and multiplicity Chapter IX: Biopower and governmentality Chapter X: The Origin of Power -/- Foucault actually explicitly stated he was a follower of Nietzsche: "I am simply a Nietzschean, and (...) I try to see, on a number of points, and to the extent that it is possible, with the aid of Nietzsche's text -- but also with anti-Nietzschean theses (which are the nevertheless Nietzschean!) -- what can be done in this or that domain. I'm not looking for anything else but l'm really searching for that". But thought Foucault considered himself thoroughly Nietzschean, most would argue that there is quite a bit of Heidegger in his work and that he was at least greatly influenced by his interactions with post-structuralism, if not an explicitly post-structuralist thinker. (shrink)

In contemporary democracies, global capitalism exerts a significant influence over how state power is exercised, raising questions about where political power resides in global politics. This question is important, since our specific considerations about justifiability of political power, i.e. political legitimacy, depend on how we characterize political power at the global level. As a partial answer to this question, I argue that our notion of global political legitimacy should be reoriented to include the structural (...) class='Hi'>power of the Transnational Capitalist Class as its subject matter. Structural power is a social relation in which the institutional context makes some agents comply with others’ preferences regardless of actors’ intentional efforts to bring about such outcomes. Even when global business elites do not intentionally exercise power to obtain political control of global governance, their structural power has recognizable effects that partly enforce the world order. To advance my claim, I utilize the radical realists’ argument that the notion of legitimacy is applicable to a broader range of social practices that are beyond dyadic power relations, i.e. rulers intentionally exercising power over subjects. (shrink)

Authors critical of corporate power focus almost exclusively on one solution: bringing it under democratic control. However important this is, there are at least two other options, which are rarely discussed: reducing powerful firms’ size and influence, or accepting corporate power as a necessary evil. This article provides a comparative perspective for evaluating all three options. It argues that the trade-offs we face in responding to corporate power have a trilemmatic structure. The pure strategies of accepting (...) powerful firms, breaking them up, or rendering them more accountable are each incompatible with one of three important values: power balance, economies of scale, and minimizing agency costs, respectively. While the latter two concepts are purely economic and efficiency-based, the value of power balance can be grounded in a variety of reasons. Different normative interpretations of power balance are discussed, along with their implications for policy choices within the trilemma. (shrink)

The article aims to assess a change in the EU’s soft power in the Western Balkan and Eastern Partnership states in the light of the crises the bloc has undergone in recent years. Generally agreeing with the common argument that the EU’s attractiveness for those countries has decreased, the author challenges the popular wisdom that such a decrease is likely to reverse those states’ pro-EU foreign policy orientations. To prove it, the author applies Joseph Nye’s and Alexander Vuving’s “ (...) class='Hi'>power currencies” approach to operationalize soft power, considering the bloc’s attraction as a combination of “brilliance” (the actor’s relationship with its work), “benignity” (the actor’s relationship with other actors) and “beauty” (the actor’s relationship with values and ideas). Elaborating on the crises’ influence on each of these currencies, the author shows that their lessening, first, has mainly taken place in absolute rather than relative terms, so the EU’s attractiveness remains strong compared to that of its competitors, and second, it has primarily affected the bloc’s soft power potential rather than its actual behavior towards the target countries. (shrink)

This paper examines how post-colonial perspectives reshape the interpretation of gender and sexuality in Greco-Roman mythology, revealing enduring power dynamics that continue to influence contemporary society. Through an analysis of pivotal myths such as Pandora’s Box, Helen of Troy and Aphrodite, Andromeda, Lucretia, and Dido, the study demonstrates how classical narratives perpetuated patriarchal ideologies by marginalizing female agency and associating women with instability. Post-colonial readings further highlight parallels between these myths and colonial strategies of control, where the subjugation (...) of women and marginalized groups was justified through cultural narratives. By juxtaposing ancient and modern interpretations, this paper underscores the cyclical nature of gender-based oppression and emphasizes the role of mythology in shaping societal expectations and norms. The findings advocate for a critical reexamination of these narratives to challenge and deconstruct the power structures they continue to uphold. (shrink)

Power is a fundamental aspect of human interaction, shaping societies, relationships, and organizations. This paper explores the dynamics of power, proposing that power is the currency of trust, which is backed by human emotions. It further distinguishes between ethical power, grounded in trust and emotional intelligence, and unethical power, which relies on coercion and manipulation. Through historical examples, philosophical alignment, and theoretical analysis, the study highlights the critical role of trust and emotions in sustaining (...) class='Hi'>power, emphasizing the need for ethical approaches in leadership and influence. (shrink)

Some scholars suggest that John Locke’s revisions to the chapter “Of Power” for the 1694 second edition of his Essay concerning Human Understanding may be indebted to the Cambridge Platonist, Ralph Cudworth. Their claims rest on evidence that Locke may have had access to Cudworth’s unpublished manuscript treatises on free will. In this paper, I examine an alternative suggestion – the claim that Cudworth’s daughter, Damaris Cudworth Masham, and not Cudworth himself, may have exerted an influence on Locke’s (...) revisions. I discuss the plausibility of this claim in light of the relevant historical and textual evidence. (shrink)

When parties and interest groups interact, they can do so in several ways which could be on an informal level, lobbying for a party candidate, or group representatives approach party leaders in the parliament to lobby them on an issue. There is a plethora of studies on the extent to which major political parties and major interests have related in the past and continue to relate or interact at the organizational level. Researchers have investigated to what extent parties and groups (...) had formal organizational ties, cooperated in elections, or worked in concert on developing and implementing policies. Factors that for decades have determined the relationship between political parties and interest groups in liberal democracies are political system and subsystem development, political culture and political ideology, centralization of government and policymaking, nature of the party system, political party dependence on interest groups, encompassing characteristics of the interest group system, interest group development, ideology, and leadership. However, the pandemic has influenced to a great extend the relationship between interest groups and politics. While Covid-19 crisis has consolidated power within governments, leaving opposition parties in a bind, on the other hand it has galvanized interest groups and businesses to mobilize. The pandemic has opened up the lobbying playing field to many new players. The paper aims to investigate to what extend the pandemic has influenced the relationship between political parties, government and interest groups and what strategies have these last ones used to get heard in a time when social distancing has reduced the opportunities for face-to-face lobbying. (shrink)

This paper discusses and criticizes Joseph Nye’s account of soft power. First, we set the stage and make some general remarks about the notion of social power. In the main part of this paper we offer a detailed critical discussion of Nye’s conception of soft power. We conclude that it is too unclear and confused to be of much analytical use. However, despite this failure, Nye is aiming at explaining an important but also neglected form of social (...) power: the power to influence the will and not just the behavior of other agents. In the last part of this paper we briefly discuss Steven Lukes’ alternative view of a “third dimension” of power and end with a sketch of a more promising way to account for this neglected form of power. (shrink)

I argue that Nietzsche’s criticism of the Kantian theory of disinterested pleasure in beauty reflects his own commitment to claims that closely resemble certain Kantian aesthetic principles, specifically as reinterpreted by Schiller. I show that Schiller takes the experience of beauty to be disinterested both (1) insofar as it involves impassioned ‘play’ rather than desire-driven ‘work’, and (2) insofar as it involves rational-sensuous (‘aesthetic’) play rather than mere physical play. In figures like Nietzsche, Schiller’s generic notion of play—which is itself (...) influenced by Kant’s claim that aesthetic pleasure is orthogonal to desire-satisfaction—becomes decoupled from his (further) Kantian view that aesthetic play essentially involves a harmony of sensuous receptivity and rational spontaneity. The result, I suggest, is a self-standing opposition between desires and passions. This motivates a recognizably Romantic vision of aesthetic disinterestedness, as freedom from desire realized in a state of creative determination by passion. (shrink)

Privacy and surveillance scholars increasingly worry that data collectors can use the information they gather about our behaviors, preferences, interests, incomes, and so on to manipulate us. Yet what it means, exactly, to manipulate someone, and how we might systematically distinguish cases of manipulation from other forms of influence—such as persuasion and coercion—has not been thoroughly enough explored in light of the unprecedented capacities that information technologies and digital media enable. In this paper, we develop a definition of manipulation (...) that addresses these enhanced capacities, investigate how information technologies facilitate manipulative practices, and describe the harms—to individuals and to social institutions—that flow from such practices. -/- We use the term “online manipulation” to highlight the particular class of manipulative practices enabled by a broad range of information technologies. We argue that at its core, manipulation is hidden influence—the covert subversion of another person’s decision-making power. We argue that information technology, for a number of reasons, makes engaging in manipulative practices significantly easier, and it makes the effects of such practices potentially more deeply debilitating. And we argue that by subverting another person’s decision-making power, manipulation undermines his or her autonomy. Given that respect for individual autonomy is a bedrock principle of liberal democracy, the threat of online manipulation is a cause for grave concern. (shrink)

Gender studies has generated numerous questions around “neutral” forms, such as the concept of “Self”. The aim of this analysis is to highlight how “neutral” forms are central to the reiteration of the binary model and the dominance of “man2”. Historically, man is the archetype, placing his supremacy as part of the natural order of things. Inserted into this model, many thinkers have considered the male as the transcendental gender, so, elevating the masculine as universal, a-sexed and decorporealised. In this (...) way, man has convinced himself that he’s not conditioned by his masculinity and can speak for all humanity, becoming the logosthrough which he declines the rest. Man, therefore, has made himself “neutral” – both in the conceptual sense and in the grammatical structure (particularly of binary languages such as Italian) – by taking control of language. Through it, he orders and constitutes the world, developing dichotomies and signifying anatomical bodies. In this research, it is intended to work on language and the relationship between “neutral” and power, emphasizing how that relationship is central to the reproduction of the patriarchal model. Through a critical philosophical reflection, which sees a logical-linguistic and historical-processual methodological structure, the discourse of the I-neutral will be crossed, pointing out how that “neutral” is in truth male. The concluding goal will be to, through “fluid” visions, build the basis for a language that is truly neutral and ready to embrace multiplicity, without relations of domination; a language really inclusive and not a reiterator of the patriarchal model. (shrink)

In this essay, I argue non-profit and non-governmental social organizations can play a crucial role in enhancing social solidarity in the age of social media. Their strengths lie in their adaptability, memetic power, and credibility. Future research should focus on social organizations' role in rehabilitating public shaming, public epistemology, and cultural dimensions.

Movies have a striking aesthetic power: they can draw us in and induce a peculiar mode of involvement in their images – they absorb us. While absorbed in a movie, we lose track both of the passage of time and of the fact that we are sitting in a dark room with other people watching the play of light upon a screen. What is the source of the power of movies? Noël Carroll, who cites Maurice Merleau-Ponty as an (...) influence on his account of the power of movies, agrees with Merleau-Ponty that our perceptual experience of movies draws on many of the capacities at work in our perceptual experience of everyday situations. Yet Merleau-Ponty’s account of perception shows that Carroll’s emphasis on intellectual inference and the entertaining of unasserted thoughts is a distortion of the phenomenology of cinematic absorption. According to Merleau-Ponty, such intellectual operations come into play in cases of breakdown but should not be read back into the primary absorbed experience as being implicitly operative all along. After presenting and criticizing Carroll’s view, I interpret and expand upon Merleau-Ponty’s position, showing that his version of the analogy between cinematic perception and everyday perception is more convincing than Carroll’s. (shrink)

Although social scientists have identified diverse behavioral patterns among children from dissimilarly structured families, marketing scholars have progressed little in relating family structure to consumption-related decisions. In particular, the roles played by members of single-mother families—which may include live-in grandparents, mother’s unmarried partner, and step-father with or without step-sibling(s)—may affect children’s influence on consumption-related decisions. For example, to offset a parental authority dynamic introduced by a new stepfather, the work-related constraints imposed on a breadwinning mother, or the imposition of (...) adult-level household responsibilities on children, single-mother families may attend more to their children’s product preferences. -/- Without a profile that includes socio-economic, behavioral, and psychological aspects, efficient and socially responsible marketing to single-mother households is compromised. Relative to dual-parent families, single-mother families tend to have fewer resources and less buying power, children who consume more materialistic and compulsively, and children who more strongly influence decision making for both own-use and family-use products. Timely research would ensure that these and other tendencies now differentiate single-mother from dual-parent families in ways that marketers should address. Hence, our threefold goal is (1) to consolidate and highlight gaps in existing theory applied to studying children’s influence on consumption-related decision making in single-mother families, and (2) to propose a hybrid framework that merges two theories conducive to such research, and (3) to identify promising research propositions for future research. (shrink)

The purpose of this article is to highlight the clientelistic strategies and informal practices that the ruling political parties in Albania use during the elections to ensure an unfair advantage in their favour over the opposition challengers. One of the main characteristics of the political developments of the transition period in Albania since 1991 has been the flourishing of informal practices and clientelist networks of political parties within state structures, which has produced an extreme politicization of these institutions. These strategies (...) that in general terms we label as “clientelistic” and that have been used to a large extent by the incumbent political parties have had a direct negative impact on the conduct of free and fair elections in Albania by distorting their main goal: to reflect the will of the people. This is because such clientelist strategies, together with the informal practices/mechanisms that accompany them, have influenced the creation of an unlevelled playing field, and have produced a hyperincumbency advantage in the electoral contests between political parties in Albania. The case of the recent elections held in Albania on 25 April 2021 will be the empirical case of this study, in which are evidenced the electoral containment strategies and practices that the ruling political party used to provide an unfair advantage in its favour and to secure its grip on power. (shrink)

Introduction: the neuroscientific turn in political science The observation that brains and political orders are interdependent is almost trivial. Obviously, political orders require brain processes in order to emerge and to remain in place, as these processes enable action and cognition. Conversely, every since Aristotle coined man as “by nature a political animal” (Aristotle, Pol.: 1252a 3; cf. Eth. Nic.: 1097b 11), this also suggests that the political engagements of this animal has likely consequences for its natural development, including the (...) development of its psychological functions. Given these mutual interdependencies, it is remarkable that only since the 1960s, the more general domain of ‘biopolitics’ has attracted attention though first particularly in the form of behavioral politics (Alford and Hibbing). Since then biopolitics has gained in interest, so much so that different subdomains can be identified. Indeed, a 2008 review of the field of biopolitics identified five ‘headings’ of it: “(1) the case for a ‘more biologically oriented political science’, (2) ‘biologically related’ public policy issues, (3) physiological measures of political attitudes and behaviour, (4) the influence of physiological factors on actual political behaviour, and (5) the manner in which our species’ evolutionary history has left homo sapiens genetically endowed with certain social and political behavioural tendencies” (Somit and Peterson 43). Striking is how the relation between biology and politics is taken here in a rather unidirectional way, emphasizing particularly the decisive power of biology upon politics. The reverse relation is not mentioned specifically, reflecting the field of biopolitics, perhaps until quite recently. This absence of studies of political influences on our biology may have to do with the difficulty in investigating such influences. Empirical studies in biopolitics have two foci, broadly speaking: genetics and the brain, both of which have turned out to be complex and dynamic phenomena (Alford and Hibbing). Yet the studies of genetics and brain processes have made much progress in the last few decades, thanks to the development of research instruments - like fMRI brain scanners and TMS brain stimulation instruments - and of computational tools for data analysis and the simulation of explanatory models. For the field of biopolitics it is particularly relevant that within cognitive neuroscience the study of social and political issues has witnessed an increasing interest of researchers even more recently. Indeed, aware of the enabling and mediating role of the brain regarding those issues, a truly ‘neuroscientific turn’ can be observed in the social sciences, testified for example by the emergence of the field of ‘neuropolitics’ (Connolly; Vandervalk). Developing a systematic neuropolitics or biopolitics in general is a difficult challenge because of the wealth of causal influences on and interdependencies between biological, brain, cognitive and socio-political factors. Taking a somewhat more abstract perspective, this paper focuses on the process of emerging complexity in adaptive systems, enabling those to conduct ever more complex processes. Yet, parallel to that development can be observed that such systems, or organisms, are also capable in reducing the complexity of the information they are to process. Once they’re capable of developing and adjusting such compressed and complex representations of information, those systems or organisms can handle more information faster and more efficient and adaptive, yielding important benefits to the organism in navigating its environment (Halford, Wilson and Phillips). Before focusing on the role of narrative as a cognitive strategy for such a reduction of informational complexity, I will discuss the development of stable structures and increasing complexity in dynamic systems. Such a more general perspective prepares our discussion of the structures of both narratives and politics and in doing so contributes to the explanation of their interaction. (shrink)

Grey power may be characterised as the ability to control events and people’s behaviour by influencing the influencers, behind the scenes. Grey power exists in every type of society and the two change together, as concauses, via a complex interchange of economic, technological and societal factors. This paper discusses the emergence of éminences grises in the modern digital age and the pressing need to gain a better understanding of their likely nature and development. The article concludes that it (...) is only by doing this that we can keep these New Grey Powers in check and prevent their usurpation of legitimate socio-legal and political power. (shrink)

This research was carried out to develop a new polymer matrix hybrid nanocomposite material for oil and gas supply systems, with experimentation and the application of experimental design tools to investigate the material's creep limit and causes. To determine the factors contributing to the variability in properties due to temperature, time, and sample replication, a three-way ANOVA technique was applied to creep stress and creep strain data. The results of the tensile tests show that the new hybrid composite material (Epoxy-Alumina-Calcium (...) Silicate Hybrid Nanocomposite) has superior strength compared to the neat epoxy or the baseline epoxy/alumina composite material. The hybrid composite with a 15% wt constituent was the only one that could withstand temperatures of up to 1300°C. Furthermore, a linear relationship was observed between the control factors (temperature and time) and the creep functions (stress and strain). Based on these findings, the new material is recommended as C (the hybrid composite with a 15% wt constituent of reinforcement filler). Finally, models were developed to predict strain and stress. (shrink)

Feminist reflections have led to a rethinking of many aspects of our contemporary world, such as the concept of masculinity and its power relations. In Western civilisation, in fact, man is the archetype, thus making his supremacy part of the natural order of things. This very naturalness, discursively produced and performed, is what has made man invisible and universal, hence without the need to think-and think oneself-in terms of gender. As a result, man has convinced himself that he is (...) not influenced by his own masculinity and can speak for all mankind, becoming the logos through which he declines the rest, prescribing 'consonant' ways of being a man or a woman. Historically, then, different power relations have developed, generating violent forms of communication that, on a daily basis, reiterate a hegemonic and sexist social model. This has led to the production of certain stereotypical attributes that have subsequently flowed into different social dynamics, establishing different roles and work possibilities that have welded structural problems: such as, for example, the 'glass ceiling'. The aim of this analysis, therefore, will be to reason about the concept of masculinity and the consequent hegemonic-linguistic structures, wondering how such reflections can be translated back into the corporate sphere. This is with the aim of producing anti-discriminatory and equal systems that improve workers' conditions, as well as their general outlook on gender issues. The methodology adopted will see the use of philosophical-pragmatic theoretical reflection, in particular around the theory of linguistic performativity, fused with empirical data collection in the corporate sphere as a result of questionnaires, contextual analyses and training courses carried out at an Italian corporation. (shrink)

Power is often taken to be a central concept in social and political thought that can contribute to the explanation of many different social phenomena. This article argues that in order to play this role, a general theory of power is required to identify a stable causal capacity, one that does not depend on idiosyncratic social conditions and can thus exert its characteristic influence in a wide range of cases. It considers three promising strategies for such a (...) theory, which ground power in (1) the ability to use force, (2) access to resources, or (3) collective acceptance. It shows that these strategies fail to identify a stable causal capacity. The lack of an adequate general theory of power suggests that the concept lacks the necessary unity to play the broad explanatory role it is often accorded. (shrink)

I argue that examining the explanatory power of the hypothesis of extended cognition (HEC) offers a fruitful approach to the problem of cognitive system demarcation. Although in the discussions on HEC it has become common to refer to considerations of explanatory power as a means for assessing the plausibility of the extended cognition approach, to date no satisfying account of explanatory power has been presented in the literature. I suggest that the currently most prominent theory of explanation (...) in the special sciences, James Woodward’s contrastive-counterfactual theory, and an account of explanatory virtues building on that theory can be used to develop a systematic picture of cognitive system demarcation in the psychological sciences. A major difference between my differential influence (DI) account and most other theories of cognitive extension is the cognitive systems pluralism implied by my approach. By examining the explanatory power of competing traditions in psychological memory research, I conclude that internalist and externalist classificatory strategies are characterized by different profiles of explanatory virtues and should often be considered as complementary rather than competing approaches. This suggests a deflationary interpretation of HEC. (shrink)

Citations signal the significance and impact of publication outputs, conferring prestige within an academic prestige economy. The longstanding academic mandate to ‘publish or perish’ has been married with the modern expectation to ‘demonstrate impact or perish,’ reflecting an evolution in scholarly priorities and imposing a ‘double burden’ on scholars, particularly on early-career researchers and marginalised voices. I examine factors influencing citation metrics through an autoethnographic lens, situating them within my subjective experiences and exploring their broader implications. Drawing on my research (...) portfolio from 2016 to 2022, which focuses on Nigerian society, I discuss how research location and other contextual factors shape scholarly impact and citation metrics. Disparities in citation rates between Western and non-Western regions reflect unequal power, resources, and recognition distributions. I assess the interaction between citation metrics and the significance of my research portfolio, which includes five empirical and two conceptual peer-reviewed articles. While I reflect on my delayed recognition of these citation metrics and impact dynamics after earning my doctorate, I advocate for improved education on these factors in social science graduate curricula. Citations are not mere appendages: they are the lifeblood coursing through the veins of academia’s ecosystem. (shrink)

Political protesters often don’t play by the rules. Think of the Occupy Movement, which brought lower Manhattan to a standstill in 2011 under the slogan, “We are the 99%”. Closer to home, think of the refugee activists who assisted a breakout from South Australia’s Woomera detention centre in 2002. Both are examples of contentious politics, or forms of political engagement outside the institutional channels of political decision-making. The democratic credentials of contentious politics are highly ambivalent. On the one hand, contentious (...) politics appears to have insufficient respect for democratic decision. Protesters are often forceful, uncivil and rowdy, aiming to disproportionately influence policy. But shouldn’t proposals be put forward with civility through the proper channels? And shouldn’t their proponents accept with good grace if they are democratically rebuffed? A closer look at the history of political thought can provide us with the framework to assess the case for and against the democratic reasonableness of contentious politics. (shrink)

The Power Structuralist View (PSV) is an account of causation in which causal relations are reduced to the powers that are activated in the subject by another subject’s power, instantly and simultaneously. PSV is based on two main assumptions: (a) holism; (b) reductionism. After justifying the choice to place PSV within the so-called ‘process accounts’ of causation (PA), I will show how, generally, every PA must solve the so-called “transference paradox” (TP) and why PSV is an innovative account. (...) However, PSV creates two main problems: (1) how to explain the instantaneous activation between correlatives; (2) how to explain which kind of “nexus” takes place between powers. I will argue that, in order to solve (1), PSV needs to adopt an intervalist position, but this leads to a form of monism that contradicts (a). Regarding (2), the reductionist approach implies the assumption that “all relations between powers are internal” and, therefore, a form of monism, again against premise (a). PSV reduces causation to a ‘primitive concept’ (the ontological dependence) but, in this way, point (2) remains unexplained. The problem of physical transference (or reciprocal influence) remains unanswered, and PSV seems to be a covert form of occasionalism. -/- [NOTE: the version on the Journal's site has problems in the footnotes. DOWNLOAD the correct version here in PhilPapers]. (shrink)

This research assesses the factors influencing students' decision-making when choosing a university. The study proposes eight factors, such as parental or guardian influence, high school teacher recommendations, graduate quality, colleague recommendations, location, school fees, learning environment, and university reputation, on students' university choices. A quantitative approach was employed, utilizing both secondary and primary data. A total of 330 students were sampled for this study. The data were analyzed using SPSS, employing descriptive statistics for data summarization and inferential statistics for (...) analysis. Descriptive tools such as frequency analysis were used to examine the distribution of responses, while regression analysis was conducted to test the predictive power of the factors. The findings of this study indicate that factors such as parental or guardian influence, high school teacher recommendations, graduate quality, colleague recommendations, location, school fees, learning environment, and university reputation are all significant considerations in students' decision-making process when choosing a university. These factors play an influential role in shaping students' preferences and choices. The results show that these factors significantly impact students' university choices. The study contributes to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence on the importance of these factors in the decision-making process. Understanding the influence of these factors can assist universities in developing targeted strategies to attract and meet the needs of prospective students. By recognizing the significance of parental involvement, fostering positive relationships with high school teachers, showcasing successful graduates, promoting positive word-of-mouth recommendations, providing a conducive learning environment, and building a solid reputation, universities can enhance their appeal and effectively compete in the higher education market. Further research in this area can explore additional factors and delve deeper into the mechanisms influencing students' decision-making when choosing a university. (shrink)

In the information-technology powered twenty first century a general demand for more effective communication is driving people to question the present, examine the past and to prognosticate the future. The ‘unique global media-information system’ - the Internet- is the central fact of a vast new complexity of communication that is driving social-economic-political-religious- technological change at a rate never experienced before. The premise of this paper is that the Internet can be better understood as the first complex global media with both (...) democratic and authoritarian possibilities, the full extent of which are still emergent. In respect of the symposium question, this paper suggests that Internet embedded communication theory can be used progressively as part of a widening and deepening approach to intercultural conversation, dialogue and debate. In theory, the localising nature of the Internet can be read as part of a greater movement towards communitarian and community centred self-governance, local democracy and social self-sufficiency. There is considerable scope for a new theory of society founded in localised ‘in-community communication’ practice supported by international human rights and effectively responsive to the asymmetric global information environment and congruent with newly democratised local structures of self-governance. (shrink)

Genuine Spirituality: The Most Powerful Force in Nature -/- Throughout history, human civilizations have pursued various forms of power—political, military, economic, and technological. Yet, despite all these advancements, the most enduring and transformative power remains genuine spirituality. Unlike material power, which is temporary and external, spirituality provides an unbreakable, self-sustaining force that governs consciousness, influences decision-making, and aligns with the universal laws of nature. It is through spirituality that individuals and societies can achieve true balance, wisdom, and (...) lasting progress. -/- 1. Connection to Universal Truth -/- Genuine spirituality is not a human-made belief system but a recognition of the fundamental truths that govern existence. It transcends religious dogma and instead seeks to align with natural laws, such as the universal law of balance. Unlike material power, which often distorts reality for control, spirituality enables individuals to see beyond illusions and act according to the highest truths of nature. -/- This connection to truth makes spiritual power more enduring than any form of external authority. Governments collapse, economies fluctuate, and scientific paradigms shift, but spirituality remains a timeless and unshakable force. Those who embrace genuine spirituality can navigate life with clarity and purpose, immune to the distractions of societal manipulation. -/- 2. The Role of the Founders of Major Religions -/- Throughout history, the founders of the world’s major religions—such as Jesus Christ, Buddha, Confucius, Muhammad, Laozi, and others—were not bound by dogma but were instead spiritual revolutionaries who sought to align humanity with higher truths. They challenged ignorance, corruption, and imbalance, guiding people toward wisdom, compassion, and self-mastery. -/- These spiritual leaders emphasized inner transformation, ethical living, and the pursuit of wisdom rather than blind obedience to rituals or institutions. However, as time passed, their teachings were often distorted by their followers, leading to the rise of dogma, division, and religious conflicts. Despite this, the core wisdom of these figures remains a powerful source of guidance for humanity. -/- If we strip away the dogmatic interpretations added by later followers, we see that all major spiritual traditions share the same essential truths—the importance of balance, self-discipline, love, justice, and harmony with nature. These universal principles are what make spirituality the greatest power in human history, far beyond any political or economic system. -/- 3. Influence Over Consciousness -/- All human decisions, inventions, and societal systems originate in the mind. Since spirituality governs consciousness, it is the root of all other forms of power. Unlike material power, which is imposed from the outside, spirituality transforms the inner world, shaping how a person perceives and interacts with reality. -/- A spiritually awakened person possesses a higher form of intelligence, as their mind is not clouded by ego, fear, or illusion. This leads to wisdom-based decision-making, which ensures stability and long-term success, whether at an individual or societal level. In contrast, those who rely on material power without spiritual understanding often create imbalance, leading to their eventual downfall. -/- 4. Self-Regulating and Self-Sustaining Power -/- One of the most remarkable aspects of genuine spirituality is that it is self-sustaining. Unlike material power, which requires external enforcement, spirituality teaches inner discipline, self-awareness, and balance. A truly spiritual person does not need laws, external validation, or societal control to act morally and wisely. -/- This makes spirituality the most reliable and enduring form of power. Governments need military forces to enforce laws, and economies require constant intervention to remain stable, but a spiritually awakened mind automatically follows the right path, regardless of external circumstances. -/- 5. Mastery Over Fear and Desire -/- Most human conflicts and societal problems arise from fear, greed, and the need for control. Material power is fragile because it is built on these lower instincts—leaders fear losing power, businesses fear competition, and individuals fear scarcity. This fear-driven mindset leads to conflict, corruption, and instability. -/- Spirituality, however, eliminates fear and excessive desire by teaching that balance and harmony are the true goals of existence. A spiritually awakened person does not seek power over others but instead strives for self-mastery and universal harmony. This inner strength makes them immune to external threats, giving them a form of power that cannot be taken away. -/- 6. Harmonization with Natural Law -/- Every system—whether natural or man-made—must follow the universal law of balance to function correctly. This applies to governments, economies, ecosystems, and even human consciousness. Any system that violates this balance, whether through greed, exploitation, or false beliefs, will eventually collapse. -/- Genuine spirituality ensures that human actions remain in harmony with this natural balance. When leaders, educators, and societies operate with spiritual wisdom, they create systems that are sustainable, just, and aligned with the laws of nature. In contrast, societies that prioritize material power without spiritual wisdom suffer from war, corruption, and environmental destruction. -/- 7. The Source of All Other Powers -/- Every form of power—political, scientific, economic, or technological—ultimately depends on the human mind. And the most powerful mind is one that understands the deepest truths of existence. Spirituality is the highest form of intelligence because it aligns the mind with the universal forces that govern reality. -/- Throughout history, the greatest leaders, thinkers, and visionaries have been deeply spiritual. Whether through philosophy, meditation, or scientific exploration, they sought to understand and align with the fundamental laws of existence. In contrast, those who pursued power without wisdom often caused destruction and suffering, proving that material power alone is insufficient for lasting success. -/- Conclusion: The Ultimate Power of Spirituality -/- Genuine spirituality is the most powerful force in nature because it governs consciousness, decision-making, and the universal balance of existence. Unlike material power, which is fragile and temporary, spirituality is self-sustaining, immune to external threats, and rooted in truth. -/- The founders of major religions understood this power and sought to guide humanity toward wisdom and enlightenment. However, the dogma of later followers often obscured their true teachings. By returning to the core spiritual principles of these great teachers—balance, wisdom, and harmony with nature—humanity can transcend its limitations, solve its greatest problems, and build a future that is truly in alignment with the universal laws of existence. -/- . (shrink)